home

//**__GUIDELINES__**// toc
 * 1) Create your Wikispaces account (top right corner)
 * 2) Choose your UserName: it has to be your Family Name, underscore and your Name (e.g. Jobs_Steve)
 * 3) Click on "Join this wiki" button. Before you can edit the page, you have to be accepted as member of the wiki
 * 4) When authorized you can make any contribution into the wiki after logging in with your username and password
 * 5) Click on "**Edit**" to add a comment in the home page (below the two "horizontal rules")
 * 6) Before making any contribution, check that your point of view is original and that nobody else posted something similar to your contribution in the Wiki (if you find some post similar to your, replay to it)
 * 7) Each individual contribution MUST have a title (to make evident the content of the post)
 * 8) Choose editing and graphical solutions that support readers' understanding and make easy to distinguish and appreciate each contribution.

What can you post here: > * the concepts presented during the lesson; > * a different point of view regarding a discussed issue; > * a new idea/concept/example linked with those already presented in the class. In this case, please be sure to highlight what is the connection among the different ideas. > * links to other material that contributes to the course (always quote the sources of your information and provide the link/URL to them).

**SNA slides** [|**SNA slides_2**]

Exam: ONLY for Erasmus students (Julia and Cristina) the exam can be done June the 4th (further details will be provided the 30th).

=I. Organization: Definitions and Characteristics=

What is organisation?
> - Increase specialization and division of labor; > - Use large scale technology; > - Manage the external enviroment; > - Economize on transaction costs; > - Exert power and control. (Gareth R. Jones; Organizational theory, design, and change; pages 23-27)
 * Organization derives from the greek word organon, which means (instrument, tool or) organ. Therefore organization can be seen as composed by different parts in order to reach an aim. Like in the human organism, all components are specialized (for example: the heart, the arm and the other organs…). An organization is an intangible tool that people use in order to achieve the target that they desire. The organizational setting exists because usually people working together can create more value than people working separately. There are five reasons for the existance of organizations, they are:

How to coordinate parts of the organization in order to reach a goal?

 * **Specialisation:** concentrating on a particular product or task ([]
 * **Coordination:** managing interdependence among the activities; Information is not needed for coordination


 * **Mintzberg’s Structuring 5:** According to Mintzberg, you can divide an organization into 5 different parts:

[]


 * 1. Strategic Apex:**
 * “Charged with ensuring that the organisation serve[s] its mission in an effective way, and also that it serve[s] the needs of those people who control or otherwise have power over the organisation.”
 * On this level, the Board of an organization is active.
 * Strategic decisions are made.


 * 2. Middle line managers:**
 * “Form a chain joining the strategic apex to the operating core by the use of delegated formal authority.”


 * 3. Operating Core (bottom workers):**
 * “Those who perform the basic work related directly to the production of products and services.”


 * 4. Technostructure:**
 * “The analysts who serve the organisation by affecting the work of others. They may design it, plan it, change it, or train the people who do it, but they do not do it themselves”. à workers that do not do the core business of the organization.
 * Those tasks could also be outsourced.
 * Specialised and professionalized activities.

Source: []
 * 5. Support Staff:**
 * “Composed of specialised units that exist to provide support to the organisation outside the operating work flow”.
 * Not core business activities, but also not specialized
 * For example: maintenance, cafeteria,…

**Why do we need __division of labour__?**

 * Division of labour is needed to reach efficiency and effectiveness.


 * Efficiency: the ratio between input and output


 * Effectiveness: the ability to reach a given aim

=II. Interdependencies and Coordination Mechanisms=

**Coordination (=** managing interdependence among the activities)
In the 1967 sociologist James D. Thompson defined three types of interdependence to describe the intensity of interactions and behaviors within an organizational structure. The study of interdependence helps business owners understand how the different departments or units within their organization depend on the performance of others.

**“Pooled [ generic] Interdependence:**
Pooled interdependence is perhaps the loosest form of the three. In this type of interdependence, each organizational department or business unit performs completely separate functions. While departments may not directly interact and do not directly depend on each other in the pooled interdependence model, each does contribute individual pieces to the same overall puzzle. This creates an almost blind, indirect dependence on the performance of others wherein one department’s failures could lead to the failure of the overall process.”

**Sequential Interdependence:**
Sequential interdependence occurs when one unit in the overall process produces an output necessary for the performance by the next unit. Perhaps the most obvious example of sequential interdependence is an assembly line. The demand for coordination to prevent slowdown is greater than for pooled task interdependence. Scheduling and planning your organization’s resources in a sequential interdependence model is essential to efficient operations.

//Interdependence of B from A//

**Reciprocal Interdependence:**
Reciprocal interdependence is similar to sequential interdependence in that the output of one department becomes the input of another, with the addition of being cyclical. In this model, an organization’s departments are at their highest intensity of interaction. Reciprocal models are the most complex and difficult to manage. Thompson theorized that the correct way to get departments within an organization working together effectively is to structure respective work tasks by intensity of interdependence, and then manage each of those interdependencies with different coordination methods. For example, a pooled interdependency requires standardization in rules and operating procedures, while the coordination methods for the other two interdependencies are slightly more flexible. A sequential interdependency is managed through mildly adaptive planning and scheduling, while reciprocally interdependent departments are managed through constant information sharing and mutual adjustments.” []
 * Coordination**

=Lecture 17.04.2012=

FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE
In a functional structure people are grouped by separate functions because they share the same skills and expertise or they use the same resources. The two main advantages of this structure are the specialization since this organization groups tasks into functions and the efficiency due to economy of scale. Anyway there are many others advantages like the fact that this organization gives the opportunity to learn from one another and so to become more productive: in fact people who are grouped together by common skills can supervise and control each other and people that are grouped together by the same function for long period tend to develop norms and values that make them more effective. However there are also some disadvantages like the fact that this organization can be implemented only for medium-large businesses with low range of production and that work in stable market because it has slow reaction time due also to the fact that is needed too much time to coordinate, there is a very hierarchical structure and there isn’t an horizontal communication among functions. It has to be taken into account also the problem that each unit looks at the own target, so the target of the business as a whole risks to go to a lower level with respect to that of the separate function. (Gareth R. Jones; Organizational theory, design, and change; pages 169-173)

=Lecture 18.04.2012=

Structural dimensions

 * 1)  **The span of control** = a number of employees under a supervisor
 * 2) ** Specialization **= the variety of activities a person does
 * 3) ** Formalization **= how many writen rules you have
 * 4)  **Centralization of decisions** = who takes the decisions, if CEO then- high centralized
 * 5)  **Profesionalization** =the skills, background a person needs in order to acomplish a task
 * 6)  **Employees' indexes, indicators** = all the diferent information you have about your employees

Context dimensions/ environmental
= Lecture 02.05.2012 =
 * 1) ** Technology: ** the type of technology used which is connected to the business
 * 2) ** Environment: ** any actor sourrounding the company, such as stakeholders, competitors, suppliers and so on
 * 3) ** The size of the organization ** (ex: revenues, nr, of employees, etc.)
 * 4) ** The strategy: ** a set of planned actions for the achievement of the defined goals
 * 5) ** Culture: ** the set of values and rules shared by the members of an organization, as well as its "cultural background"

** BPM= ** Business Process Modeling  **SNA=** Social Network Analysis

**Business process management**
(BPM) is a [|holistic management] approach [|[1]] focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients. It promotes business [|effectiveness] and [|efficiency] while striving for [|innovation], flexibility, and integration with technology. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can therefore be described as a " [|process optimization] process." It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach.

An empirical study by Kohlbacher (2009) indicates that BPM helps organizations to gain higher [|customer satisfaction], [|product quality] , delivery speed and [|time-to-market] speed. [|[2]] An empirical study by Vera & Kuntz (2007) conducted in the German hospital sector indicates that BPM has a positive impact on organizational efficiency. [|[3]]

** Systems Network Architecture **
( ** SNA ** ) is [|IBM] 's proprietary [|networking] architecture created in 1974. [|[1]] It is a complete [|protocol stack] for interconnecting [|computers] and their resources. SNA describes the protocol and is, in itself, not a single piece of software. The implementation of SNA takes the form of various communications packages, most notably Virtual telecommunications access method ( [|VTAM] ) which is the [|mainframe] package for SNA communications. SNA is still used extensively in banks and other financial transaction networks, as well as in many government agencies. While IBM is still providing support for SNA, one of the primary pieces of hardware, the [|3745] /3746 communications controller, has been withdrawn from marketing by the IBM Corporation. However, there are an estimated 20,000 of these controllers installed and IBM continues to provide hardware maintenance service and microcode features to support users. A robust market of smaller companies continues to provide the 3745/3746, features, parts and service. VTAM is also supported by IBM, as is the [|IBM Network Control Program] (NCP) required by the 3745/3746 controllers.

Overview Event-driven Process Chain notation
An (EPC) is a type of [|flowchart] used for [|business process modelling]. EPC's can be used for configuring an [|enterprise resource planning] (ERP) implementation, [|[1]] and for [|business process] improvement.

The most common EPC constructs such as branches or loops are provided as fragments in ARIS Express, thus enabling you to have an easy start to the world of process modeling and flow charting. [|Link]

A simple event-driven process chain may look as follows:



Event-driven process chains are used to describe the operational sequence of processes. The beginning and the end of every event-driven process chain is always illustrated by an EPC event. An event is defined by the conditions that must be met to start and end the process. Multiple functions can follow each event or multiple events can follow each function, but there must be rules in between. In an EPC, such rules are called 'OR', 'AND', or 'XOR' and are represented as graphical connectors. The following table shows how you can use the various elements of an event-driven process chain:
 * Rules for EPC modeling**

Event-driven process chains are often used at the lowest level of the process hierarchy. ARIS Express not only offers the possibility of representing [|business processes] by means of the event-driven process chain, but also provides the [|BPMN diagram] for illustrating technical workflows and flow charts.

=**Lecture 8/5/2012** =

Business process modeling
A Business Process Model (BPM) is commonly a diagram representing a sequence of activities. It typically shows events, actions and links or connection points, in the sequence from end to end. Sequence[|*] is significant and essential to most aspects of business process modelling, but there are exceptions to this especially at the higher level of organizational operations. Typically but not necessarily, a Business Process Model includes both IT processes and people processes. Business Process Modelling by implication focuses on processes, actions and activities, etc. Resources feature within BPM in terms of how they are processed. People (teams, departments, etc) feature in BPM in terms of what they do, to what, and usually when and for what reasons, especially when different possibilities or options exist, as in a flow diagram. Business Process Modelling is cross-functional, usually combining the work and documentation of more than one department in the organisation. In more complicated situations, Business Process Modelling may also include activities of external organisations' processes and systems that feed into the primary process. In large organisations operations Business Process Models tend to be analysed and represented in more detail than in small organisations, due to scale and complexity. Business Process Modelling is to an extent also defined by the various computerized tools or software which are used in applying its methods. These methods and the standard features within them continue to evolve, which means that we should keep an open and curious mind as to how BPM can be used, and what people actually mean when they refer to it.[|/]

Purpose of Business process modeling
A Business Process Model diagram is a tool - a means to an end, not a performance outcome in its own right. The final output is improvement in the way that the business process works. The focus of the improvements is on 'value added' actions that make the customer service and experience better, and on reducing wasted time and effort. There are two main different types of Business Process Models: which are used to analyse, test, implement and improve the process. The aim of modelling is to illustrate a complete process, enabling managers, consultants and staff to improve the flow and streamline the process. The outcomes of a business process modelling project are essentially: leading to increased profits. Other secondary consequences arising from successful Business Process Modelling can be increased competitive advantage, market growth, and better staff morale and retention. There are no absolute rules for the scope or extent of a Business Process Model in terms of departments and activities covered. Before committing lots of resources to Business Process Modelling proper consideration should be given to the usefulness and focus of the exercise - ask the questions: As with other management tools, there is no point producing a fantastically complex model that no-one can understand or use, just as it is a bit daft to spend hundreds of hours analysing anything which is of relatively minor significance. Business Process Modelling is a powerful methodology when directed towards operations which can benefit from improvement, and when people involved are on-board and supportive.[|-]
 * the 'as is' or baseline model (the current situation)
 * and the 'to be' model (the intended new situation)
 * value for the customer, and
 * reduced costs for the company,
 * Does the modelling have the potential to produce gains that will justify the time and effort?
 * Will the modelling be structured so that people will understand the outputs (not too big and complex as to be self-defeating)?
 * Do people understand why we are doing it, and "what's in it for them"?

[]

Example of business process modeling of a process with a normal flaw
Th[|e source of the graph]

**The entity-relationship model (E-R)**
Entity-relationship modeling is a database modeling method where the entity represents a set of instances and the relationship represents a logical concept that connect two or more entities. Each entity has a primary key that is an attribute that differs from instance to instance and through which is possible to identify one and only one entity. Cardinality : The concept of cardinality tells us which is the relationship between the entities. There are several types of relationship: Here we have some examples of cardinality:
 * 1 : 1
 * 1 : M
 * N : M
 * A marriage relationship, given some conditions, is an 1 : 1 relationship because one wife can have only one husband and one husband can have only one wife.
 * The relationship between a mother and her children is a 1 : N relationship because one mother can have many children but each child can have only one mother.
 * The relationship between students and courses is an N : M relationship because a student can follows many courses and a course can be followed by many students.